Risk Factors

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Complications in Infants and Children

Feeding Problems. Feeding problems may be more severe than previously thought in children with GERD. In one study, children who had GERD and problems swallowing tended to refuse food and were late in eating solids. They also cried more and reacted more negatively in general than non-GERD babies. Such behaviors negatively affected the mothers as well. These findings were supported in an earlier study which reported that children at one year, who had GERD in infancy, were no longer spitting up, but still tended to have negative dining experiences ("too slow," "upsetting"). However, these children were at no greater risk for respiratory illnesses than other one-year olds.

Associations with Asthma and Infections in the Upper Airways. In addition to asthma, GERD is associated with other upper airway problems, including ear infections and sinusitis. Some experts argue that the association with common childhood infections and asthma is unfounded, since GERD is normal in most children.

Dental Erosion. GERD can cause irreversible loss of tooth enamel. Based on a 2002 study, some experts suggest checking for GERD in children with dental erosions. In the study, no child without GERD experienced loss of tooth enamel.

Rare Complications in Infants. Although GERD is very common, the following complications are very rare and only occur in certain cases:

• Failure to thrive.
• Feeding problems and severe vomiting may cause anemia.
• Acid back-up may be inhaled into the airways and cause pneumonia.

The infant's life may be in danger if acid reflux causes spasms in the larynx severe enough to block the airways. In fact, some experts believe this action may contribute to sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). More research is needed to determine whether this association is valid.

Managing GERD in Infancy

Here are some hints on managing GERD in infants:

• During and after feeding, infants should be positioned vertically and burped frequently.
• If a baby with GERD is fed formula, a mother should ask the doctor how to thicken it in order to prevent splashing up from the stomach.
• Parents of infants with GERD should discuss baby's sleeping position with their pediatrician. Experts strongly recommend that all healthy infants sleep on their backs to help prevent sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). For babies with GERD, however, lying on the back may obstruct the airways. In one study, infants with gastroesophageal reflux who spent prolonged periods of time in infant seats, including car seats, had more reflux than those who spent waking time on their stomachs. If the physician recommends that babies with GERD sleep on their stomachs, parents should be sure that their infant's mattress is very firm, possibly tilted up at the head, and that there are no pillows. The baby's head should be turned so that the mouth and nose are completely unobstructed.
• Because food allergies may trigger GERD in children, parents may want to discuss a dietary plan with their physician that starts the child on formulas using non-allergenic proteins, and then incrementally adds other foods until symptoms are triggered.

Managing GERD in Children

The same drugs used in adults may be tried in children with chronic GERD. While some drugs are available over the counter, they should not be given to children without physician supervision.

• Milder medications, such as antacids, are used first.
• H2 blockers may be tried next. They are available over the counter and include famotidine (Pepcid AC), cimetidine (Tagamet HB), ranitidine (Zantac 75), and nizatidine (Axid AR). The FDA has issued a warning on Pepcid AC for adults with kidney problems.
• Proton-pump inhibitors, such as omeprazole (Prilosec) and lansoprazole (Prevacid), are even more powerful agents that suppress the production of stomach acid. They appear to be safe and effective even for children as young as one year old who fail the less intensive therapies. Lansoprazole is available in flavored liquid form and has been approved for children.

Surgical fundoplication involves wrapping the upper curve of the stomach (fundus) around the esophagus. The goal of this surgical technique is to strengthen the LES. Until recently, surgery was the primary treatment for children with severe complications from GERD because older drug therapies had severe side effects, were ineffective, or had not been designed for children. However, with the introduction of proton-pump inhibitor drugs, some children may be able to avoid surgery. Surgical fundoplication can be performed laparoscopically through small incisions. Of 238 children from 5 months to 16 years of age who underwent laparoscopic fundoplication, all but 9 were symptom free at least 5 years after the surgery.