Introduction

Introduction

The two major forms of diabetes are type 1 (previously called insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, IDDM, or juvenile-onset diabetes) and type 2 (previously called noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, NIDDM, or maturity-onset diabetes).

Insulin

Both diabetes type 1 and type 2 share one central feature: elevated blood sugar (glucose) levels due to insufficiencies of insulin, a hormone produced by the pancreas. Insulin is a key regulator of the body's metabolism. It works in the following way:

• During and immediately after a meal the process of digestion breaks down carbohydrates into sugar molecules (including glucose) and proteins into amino acids.
• Right after the meal, glucose and amino acids are absorbed directly into the bloodstream, and blood glucose levels rise sharply.
• The rise in blood glucose levels signals important cells in the pancreas, called beta cells, to secrete insulin, which pours into the bloodstream. Within 10 minutes after a meal, insulin rises to its peak level.
• Insulin enables glucose and amino acids to enter cells in the body, particularly muscle and liver cells. Here, insulin and other hormones direct whether these nutrients will be burned for energy or stored for future use. (The brain and nervous system are not dependent on insulin; they regulate their glucose needs through other mechanisms.)
• When insulin levels are high, the liver stops producing glucose and stores it in other forms until the body needs it again.
• As blood glucose levels reach their peak, the pancreas reduces the production of insulin.
• About 2 to 4 hours after a meal, both blood glucose and insulin are at low levels, with insulin being slightly higher. The blood glucose levels are then referred to as fasting blood glucose concentrations.

Type 2 Diabetes

Type 2 diabetes is the most common form of diabetes, accounting for 90% of cases. An estimated 19 million Americans have type 2 diabetes and half are unaware they have it. The disease mechanisms in type 2 diabetes are not wholly known, but some experts suggest that it may involve the following three stages in most patients:

• The first stage in type 2 diabetes is the condition called insulin resistance. Although insulin can attach normally to receptors on liver and muscle cells, certain mechanisms prevent insulin from moving glucose (blood sugar) into these cells where it can be used. Most patients with type 2 diabetes produce variable, even normal or high, amounts of insulin. In the beginning, this amount is usually sufficient to overcome such resistance.
• Over time, the pancreas becomes unable to produce enough insulin to overcome resistance. In type 2 diabetes, the initial effect of this stage is usually an abnormal rise in blood sugar right after a meal (called postprandial hyperglycemia). This effect is now believed to be particularly damaging to the body.
• Eventually, the cycle of elevated glucose further impairs and possibly destroys beta cells, thereby stopping insulin production completely and causing full-blown diabetes. This is made evident by fasting hyperglycemia, in which elevated glucose levels are present most of the time.